Lili
Lili is an engineered language that aims to let the speaker decide how ambiguous or unambiguous to be. It offers many resources to ambiguate or disambiguate a word or a sentence. Alphabet and phonology Vowels a: /a e: /ɛ i: /i o: /ɔ u: /u Consonants b: /b c: /ʃ d: /d f: /f g: /ɡ j: /ʒ k: /k l: /l m: /m n: /n p: /p r: /r s: /s t: /t v: /v x: /x y: /ɣ z: /z Grammar Morphology Hyphenated words like "z-ca" are degree words. "z-ca" means "sadness-happiness" and is inflected this way: zuoca: very sad (-3) zueca: sad (-2) zuaca: a bit sad (-1) zuca: neutral (0) zoca: a bit happy (1) zeca: happy (2) zaca: very happy (3) Also: zoeca: sadder zoaca: happier zeuca: saddest zeaca: happiest The vowels are the same for every degree word. For example, "k-ta", means "cold-hot", so "kueta" means "very cold". Syntax Lili has a SVO word order for non-switch sentences, and has a unusual way of forming sentences. Ignoring "p" and "t", which we'll see later, the elements that occupy the odd positions of a sentence are operands, while the elements that occupy the even positions of a sentence are operators. There is always an odd number of elements in a sentence, so that a sentence always starts and end with an operand, alternating between operands and operators. See the following transitive sentence: jecel naki rasu: a dog eats (some) food "jece": dog (operand) "nak": to eat (operator) "rasu": food (operand) Every word is separated by an "i" or an "l" (they're interchangeable), everything is lowercase, there is no punctuation and spaces are completely arbitrary, so you can write the sentences like this: jecelnakirasu jeceinakirasu jeceina kirasu jecelnaki rasu Or anything you want. Spaces are irrelevant. Since the number of the elements must always be odd, you cannot say "jecelnak" if you want to say that a dog eats. There is a way to say it. "jecelnakirasu" and "jeceldinakirirasu" mean exactly the same thing. jecel di naki ri rasu jece: dog (operand) d: (operator) nak: to eat (operand) r: (operator) rasu: food (operand) Now, "nak" has become an operand, so you can say "the dog eats" as: "jecel dinak". Parentheses Consider the following sentence: "I feed my dog" cifcaolpi cidel jece c: I (first person singular pronoun) (operand) fcao: to feed (operator) p: (open parenthesis) c: I (first person singular pronoun) (operand) de: possessive (operator) jece: dog (operand) There is a parenthesis in this sentence, because if you don't put any parenthesis, "del jece" would refer to the whole sentence, and it would mean "the dog of the fact I feed myself", which makes no sense. "del jece" refers only to "c", therefore the parenthesis must be placed before "c". A parenthesis is closed with "t", but "t" cannot appear at the end of a speech. Switch Adding an e- before an operator switches A and B. So that: rasule naki jece Means "The dog eats (some) food". Switch sentences have a OVS word order. Lessons (work in progress) Basic sentences The most basic sentence is made by a subject, a verb, and an object. For example, "I love you" can be translated as: civarij c: I (operand) v-r: hate-love (non-romantic) (operator) j: you (operand) Another type of sentence are intransitive sentences, which are formed by subject + "d" + verb cidipajb: I walk c: I (operand) d: (operator) pajb: to walk (operand) Basic sentences with a parenthesis Without a parenthesis, the last operand modifies the whole thing that was said before. For example, if you want to say:"I eat a red apple", you have to say: cinakipi rendi kidokf c: I (operand) nak: to eat (operator) p: (open parenthesis) rend: apple (operand) k: (operator) dokf: red (operand) Without the parenthesis: "cinaki rendi kidokf" would mean "The fact that I eat an apple is red", because "dokf" ("red") would modify everything that was said before, instead of just "apple". If you can't pronounce a word correctly, you can add an "i" just before or just after the word. So, you can pronounce and/or write it as "dokfi", in this case, and nothing will change. Verbal tenses Verbal tenses are indicated with the operand "p-f" ("past-future") after the operator "z". For example: cidinaki zipuf c: I (operand) d: (operator) nak: to eat (operand) z: (introduces time) (operator) p-f: past-future (operand) "p-f" ranges from "puof" (distant past), to "puf" (present), to "paf" (distant future). Evidentiality After the operator "av", the following operands act as evidential markers: xao: experienced event xeu: hearsay dop: inference (for example, saying:"Someone took my mobile phone" if you don't see it in the place you left it) zuf: speculation (when you have no idea what you're talking about, similar to see word "might") Example sentence: "he/she might be sleeping". reldi cafalavi zuf re: he/she/it (operand) d: (operator) cafa: to sleep (operand) m: (operator) zuf: (speculation) (operand) Other words can be used, such as "keck" (school). "avirikeck" means "I learned it at school". Singular and plural markers "sn" is the singular marker", "pn" is the plural marker. They go after the operator "k". rend: apple(s) rendi kisn: an apple rendi kipn: more than one apple "gn" is the marker for generalizations (it's optional, though): aboti kigni diduesm: humans are stupid abot: human (operand) k: (operator) gn: (generalization marker) (operand) d: (operator) d-sm: dumb-smart (operand) Genders After the operator "k", the operands "na" means "female" and "vu" means "male" cidinak: I eat ciki naldinak: I (female) eat ciki vuldinak: I (male) eat Case prepositions There are a lot of operators that can be used as prepositions that function like cases. For example "cm" is the comitative operator, that means "in company of", "with". cidi pajb icmij: I walk with you c: I (operand) d: (operator) pajb: to walk (operand) cm: (comitative) (operator) j: you (operand) "ns" is the instrumental operator, that means "by the means of". cidina kinsizrau: I eat with a fork c: I (operand) d: (operator) nak: to eat (operand) ns: (instrumental) (operator) zrau: fork (operand) Negative and interrogative sentences After the operator "k", "u" turns something negative, and "ba" turns something interrogative. For example: ji naki rendi zipedalkiu: you didn't eat any apple today j: you (operand) nak: to eat (operator) rend: apple (operand) z: (introduces time) (operator) peda: the past part of today (operand) k: (operator) u: negative marker (operand) ji naki rendi zipedalkiba: did you eat any apple today? j: you (operand) nak: to eat (operator) rend: apple (operand) z: (introduces time) (operator) peda: the past part of today (operand) k: (operator) ba: interrogative marker (operand) It is possible to only turn a part of the sentence interrogative or negative to express some nuances. jikiul naki rend zipeda: it was not you who ate an apple today ji nakipi rendikiulti zipeda: it was not an apple the thing you ate today ji naki rendi zipi pedalkiu: it was not today that you ate an apple etc. Types of questions "ba" is the standard yes/no interrogative. Other types of interrogatives are "ab" and "ub". "ab" means the speaker prefers the answer to be a "yes", while "ub" means the speaker prefers the answer to be a "no". Compare: jlabo cici zipefi kiab: will you hug me? (I hope yes) jlabo cici zipefi kiub: will you hug me? (I hope not) These questions can be used as an implicit imperative in the future form, but can be used in the past as well. jlabo cirel zipuefi kiab: did you hug that person? (I hope yes) jlabo cirel zipuefi kiub: did you hug that person? (I hope not) Relative pronoun "reu" is the relative pronoun, that means "that/who/which". For example: aboti reulpi kacairi xuxo: (lit.) a person who causes death (a killer) abot: human (operand) reu: (relative pronoun) (operator) p: (open parenthesis) kaca: to cause (operand) r: (operator) xuxo: death (operand) Yes, that's the way to say "killer" in Lili. There is no "-er" suffix like in English, so you need to say "a person who something". "Like" There are three ways to say "like" to compare something to something else. Vocabulary: j: you (operand) d: (operator) fauk: to smell (like) (operand) kak/kek/kok/kuk: like (operator) kbac: goat (operand) "kak": A does something, B does that as well jidi fauki kak ikbac: you smell like a goat (you smell, and a goat smells too) "kek": A does something in the same manner as B jidi fauki kek ikbac: you smell like a goat (the smell is similar) "kok": A does something in the same intensity as B jidi fauki kok ikbac: you smell like a goat (the intensity is similar) "kuk": A does something in the same manner and intensity as B jidi fauki kuk ikbac: you smell like a goat (smell and intensity are similar) From an individual to a group "koze" modifies a noun to indicate the collection of every individual. Most English words don't have a translation. abot: human aboti kikoze: humankind rasu: food rasul kikoze: all the food that exists, as a whole Everyday, a guy looks at me catelki voklezipi abotikivui bcuaic cate: day (operand) k: (operator) vok: every (operand) ez: (switched "z") (operator) p: (open parenthesis) abot: human (operand) k: (operator) vu: male (operand) bcua: to look (at) (operator) c: I (operand) This sentence is ambiguous, because we don't know if it's always the same guy or if the guy can be different everytime. There is an optional way to disambiguate this sentence, putting "dob" after the operator "k" to indicate that the guy is always the same, and "tob" to indicate that it can change. catelki voklezipi abotikivul kidobi bcuaic: (the guy is always the same) catelki voklezipi abotikivul kitobi bcuaic: (the guy can be different each time) Expectations "To expect" in English has two meanings: "to want", and "to think something will happen". They are translated as "casu" and "keco" respectively. cicasul vtau: I expect (want) an answer cikecol vtau: I expect (think that will happen) an answer c: I (operand) casu/keco: (operators) vtau: answer (operand) Requests After the operator "k", "rob" indicates that it's a request. jlabo cici kirob: please hug me j: you (operand) aboc: hug (operator) c: I (operand) k: (operator) rob: (request) (operand) Emotions and tones of voice After the operator "m", a word that indicates emotion or tone of voice, indicates that the sentence is said with that emotion or tone or voice. cicasulpi clabo ciji timinuca "I want to hug you" (said with a smile). c: I (operand) casu: to want, wish (operator) p: (open parenthesis) c: I (operand) aboc: hug (operator) j: you (operand) t: (close parenthesis) m: (introduces emotion or tone of voice) (operator) nuca: smile (operand) You can also use "m" as an operand, then use "r", and then the name of the motion, to use them as emoticons. mirinuca: (smile emoticon) Conditionals "rac" means "therefore", and "erac" is the switch of "rag", it means "because". jlabo cici racipi cidizaca: you hug me, therefore I'm very happy cidizacal eragipi jlabocic: I'm very happy, because you hug me "rof" means "if A, then B". It's passive "erof" is a bit difficult to translate in English, but it's something like:"it would be A, if B" jlabo cici rofipi cidizaca: if you hug me, then I'm very happy cidizacal erofipi jlabocic: I would be very happy if you hug me "rer" can either mean "rac" or "rof" jlabo cici reripi cidizac It's not specified whether the listener hugs the speaker. Affirmative or negative "au" after the operator "k" ambiguates the sentence, rendering it affirmative or negative. relabo cici klau: he/she hugs me, OR he/she doesn't hug me. Can be translated in English approximately as "He/she doesn't necessarily hug me", but without the awkwardness. Useful when you don't want to admit something. Yes/no a: yes au: yes OR no (when you don't want to answer) u: no Weather Usually, saying "rejd" (rain) or "kavo" (snow) is enough to say "it rains" or "it snows". If you want to specify it's unambiguously a verb, then say "weather event" + "d" + "suba", for example: rejdidi suba: it rains But it's unnecessary. "rejd" is enough, even though it can be either a noun or a verb if alone. If you want to specify "rain" as a noun, use the noun suffix "un" after the operator "k". rejd: rain/it rains rejdidi suba: it rains rejdi klun: rain (noun) Reflexives "caj" is the reflexive pronoun, and can be used interchangeably with normal pronouns. clabo cic = clabo cicaj = I hug myself Sexual orientations and fetishes There are two words to describe your sexual preferences: "zoge" and "fnau". "zoge" means you want to have sex with someone, while "fnau" is a fetish. "Towards" is "r". They can be either operands or operators. zogeirigog: homosexuality zogeiricta: heterosexuality zogeirizev: bisexuality zogeiriyuedo: pedophilia fnauirigava: foot fetish cizogelgog: I'm gay cizogeicta: I'm straight cifnaulgava: I have a foot fetish aboti zeulpi zogeirigog: gay person The first time "The first time she hugged me, I was very happy". Let's see how to translate this. "Time" (in the sense of "occurrence") is "raop". "One" is "ras". To turn a cardinal number into an ordinal number, use "rod". "First" is "rasikirod". "The first time" is "raopikipi rasikirod(iti)". "She hugged me" is "relkinal abocic". To connect these two sentences, we must use the operator "dac". "raopikipi rasikiroditi dacipi relkinal abocic(iti)" means "the first time she hugged me". "I was very happy" is "cidizaca". To connect these two sentences, we must use the operator "ez", which is the switch of "z". The complete sentence will be: raopikipi rasikiroditi dacipi relkinal aboci citi ezipi cidizaca Expressing your opinion about something Use the operand "b-ga" (bad-good) and refer to the whole sentence. For example: jidi zbefi kibuega: you're fat (I don't like it) jidi zbefi kibuga: you're fat (I have a neutral opinion about it) jidi zbefi kibega: you're fat (I like it) No offense, but... When people say "no offense" in English, they usually don't mean it at all, but in Lili, it's different. The operand "sne" (after the operator "m", this time) helps clarify that the intention of the speaker is not to offend. The operand "snu", on the other hand, means that it's an insult, or that the listener is annoying the speaker, while "sna" means the sentence is a compliment. Using the operand "sne" indicates that the listener is not annoying the speaker. Fun fact: "snu" can be used as a generic insult, although with no exact meaning. jidisnu: you are insult here jidisna: you are compliment here Politeness Use these operands after "m". "z-je" is an operand that indicates whether a sentence or a word is polite or informal. zuoje: vulgar (-3) zueje: impolite/informal (-2) zuaje: informal (-1) zuje: neutral (0) zoje: polite (1) zeje: formal (2) zaje: honorific (3) True and false insults As we saw before, "snu" is used to insult someone, but it only works if something is true. "spu" is the metaphorical insult. For example: jigei pcuci mispu: you are an excrement It's not true that the listener is an excrement, but the speaker says it as an insult. Every word becomes an insult with "sap", so a lot of creative insults can be made. It can be disambiguated in "spub" and "spuc". "spub" is an actual insult, it means the speaker is angry at the listener, while "spuc" is a playful insult. Same thing goes for "snu" (the insult for true sentences), it can be disambiguated in "snub" (angry insult) and "snuc" (playful insult). "spu" and "snu" can be ambiguated into "stu", which is the most generic insult, irrespective if the sentence is true or not. "stu" can be disambiguated into "stub" (angry insult) and "stuc" (playful insult). Birth and death There are no direct translations for "birth" and "death". We must use the word "cebe", which means "becoming, transition". "Birth" is translated as "fafulkicebe" ("fafu" = "life", and "cebe" = "becoming"). Basically, it means that something that was not alive becomes alive. "Death" is the same thing. "xuxo" means "death", but only as a state. The transition from life to death is called "xuxoikicebe". Bizarre words can be created with "cebe", for example "ckaulkicebe", "the process of becoming red". It can be used as an operator as well, for example: cicebelzuecal zipuf: I'm becoming sad now. Sarcasm and metaphors After the operator "m", "sra" is the operand that indicates that something is sarcastic, while "nta" indicates that it's a metaphor. Sarcasm and metaphors can be combined with each other. cicebeixuxo: I'm dying (literally, i.e. the speaker is dying) cicebeixuxoi minta: I'm dying (metaphorically, i.e. the speaker is uncomfortable) cicebeixuxoi mipintalkifua: I'm dying (metaphorically or literally) My book "de" is the possessive, but it's ambiguous. cidelonda: my book Did I buy it? Did I write it? It's unspecified. cidebionda: my book (I bought it, but someone else wrote it) cidekionda: my book (the one I wrote) Note that this distinction isn't valid for every word. In doubt, use "de". Ambiguate the value of a degree word There is no direct translation of the word "temperature". Instead, we must use k-ta ("cold-hot"), put a "u" instead of the hyphen ("kuta"), and use the operand "van" after that. "kutalkivan" means "unspecified value of cold-hot", and means "temperature". Something like "cidipi vurikivaniti kolji" can mean "I love you", "I hate you", or anything in between. "kutalkivani kibega" means "a pleasant temperature". A place where they sell food "rasu" is "food". "sera" is "to sell". "seralkoi rasu" is "to sell food". "vems" is a place for activities. "vemsi kipi seralkoi rasu" is "a place where they sell food". Meat "cvuv" is the animal meat for human consumption. "animal" + "de" + "cvuv" means "the meat of animal as food". For example, "akro" is chicken, but doesn't usually refer to its meat as food (unless it's obvious by the context). To refer to its meat as food, say "akroldei cvuv". Days of the week zava: Sunday buoz: Monday mazn: Tuesday vefn: Wednesday done: Thursday apro: Friday avep: Saturday Permissions and prohibitions orab: compulsory crao: encouraged sodo: permitted zvaz: discouraged ynau: prohibited sodoiri smoki kiba: is smoking here permitted? cicraoikbaz: I encourage criticism Habitual aspect "baz" is the habitual aspect, and it goes after the operator "k", as usual. cinakirendi kibaz: I habitually eat apples cifba dianami kibaz: I habitually watch cartoons cifba dipi anami kidobiti kibaz: There's a cartoon I habitually watch cifba dipi anami kidobiti kipi bazi zipuef: There's a cartoon I used to watch The listener makes the speaker feel an emotion After the sentence, after the operator "m", insert + "erag" + "j". Don't forget to use the parenthesis correctly. For example "I love you (you're making me feel very happy)": civariji mipi zacale ragij Seasons of the year vesna: spring retom: summer osen: autumn zmau: winter The difference in "smelling" and "having a smell" In English, there is no lexical difference between smelling something and having a smell, or any other of the 5 senses either. In Lili, there is this difference: ("cfad" means "soft") fbab vs faub cifba bicfad: I feel a soft thing (i.e. I'm touching something soft) cifau bicfad: I feel soft (i.e. if you touch me, you'll feel soft) fbac vs fauk cifba cibega: I'm smelling a good thing cifau kibega: I smell good (i.e. a good smell emanates from me) fbad vs faud: cifba dibega: I'm looking at something good cifau dibega: I look good fbaf vs fauf (hearing) fbag vs faug (taste) Topic marker "top" is the topic marker. It broadly means "as opposed to something/someone else". For example: cinakipi rendikisniti zipuaf: I just ate an apple cikitopi nakipi rendikisniti zipuaf: it was me who just ate an apple cinakipi rendikisniki topiti zipuaf: I just ate an apple (and not something else) My hand There are two meanings of "my hand", though one is extremely unlikely cidelvado: my hand (the one of my body) cidezivado: my hand (the hand of someone else that I consider to be my property) "cidezivado" can be used, in an unlikely hypothetical case, if I cut off someone's hand and consider it to be mine. Vocative Name of the thing you're calling + "v" + sentence abotikinalvipi cilabanij: I love you, girl. In a certain style "kub" means style. "pef" "means "future". "kubikipef" means "futuristic style". About questions again "bab" is an interrogative marker that means the question is affirmative for the speaker. "bac" means the question is negative for the speaker jidizecal kibab: are you happy, too? (I am) jidizecal kibac: are you happy? (I'm not) It's cold, according to whom? "saz", "sez" and "soz" mean"to have an opinion (that)", but they're different. For example, consider the three following sentences: axobiki robikiul eragi kueta: don't go outside, it's cold (ambiguous) axobiki robikiul eragipi cisazikueta: don't go outside, it's cold (see below) axobiki robikiul eragipi cisezikueta: don't go outside, it's cold (see below) The second sentence is strange, because why would a speaker discourage someone else from going outside based on his/her own perception of cold? It's clear that the speaker is projecting his/her own perception of cold onto another person, that's why the word "sez" needs to be used. "saz" means you don't care about people agreeing with you, while "sez" means you want people to agree with you. In the case of "don't go outside, it's cold", the speaker is not merely stating his/her own opinion about the temperature, he/she wants the listener to agree as well. "soz" can either mean "saz" or "sez". Emotions caused by something "me" is the operator that indicates the speaker doesn't necessarily feel like that in the moment he/she says it, but something causes the speaker a certain emotion. For example: buvolmel pucue: a clown scares me/clowns scare me Difficult and easy "Difficult" and "easy" have two meanings each. "z-de" means "difficult-easy" in the sense that something is difficult or easy to do, while "s-zu" means "difficult-easy" in the sense that something is unlikely or likely to happen. For example: aboti reulpi xekalki zede: a person who gets angry easily (see below) aboti reulpi xekalki sezu: a person who gets angry easily (see below) The first sentence means that the person described finds getting angry to be an easy achievement. The second sentence means that the person described often gets angry for little to no reason. Usually, in English, "a person who gets angry easily" is meant as in the second sentence, and the meaning of the first sentence would be considered a unusual interpretation. Coming soon Case system Coming soon Locative-temporal system Coming soon Interrogative dummy word Coming soon Consensuality Coming soon Frequence Coming soon Vocabulary (work in progress) (612 words) zava: Sunday buoz: Monday mazn: Tuesday vefn: Wednesday done: Thursday apro: Friday avep: Saturday orab: compulsory sodo: permitted zvaz: discouraged ynau: prohibited ab: interrogative marker (the speaker hopes for an affirmative answer) aba: to learn abev: school bell abka: pattern, motif aboc: hug abom: cool (in the sense of "good", not temperature) abot: human abre: depression (condition) abuf: mouse (animal) abuj: predator (animal) abuv: vertebrate abvu: school subject abzu: truth acko: flower actag: hashtag ad-n: old-new adu: hybrid between A and B aeke: euphoria (feeling) afef: sailor afof: to drive (a vehicle) afre: withstanding agoc: salmon ajam: to host (a guest) ajok: port akom: window akro: chicken amda: table anab: to drink (implies alcohol) anam: cartoon anamu: anime (Japanese-style cartoon) ananas: ananas antar: Antarctica apra: carbonated (drink) apun: wine arka: home (i.e. the house, city or country where one lives; not in the sense of a building) artuk: the Arctic asb-: famine-condition with plenty of food asen: influence asma: hill, mountain asmar: to whisper asob: to play (a game), game asus: laptop asvu: season (of the year, not of a TV Series) ateb: pizza audo: audio (media) auds: AIDS ausk: ice-cream autus: autism avub: vehicle avuj: paralysis avut: car avutbez: bus azupa: abortion axob: exit (of a building) axud: entry (of a building) ba: interrogative marker bab: (see "about questions again") bac: (see "about questions again") banana: banana baru: to bring basa: sibling barza: to stutter baum: tree baz: (habitual aspect marker) bebo: beer benk: to study besku: to surf (the waves, not the web) besne: friend bete: to sit down bevj: withdraw (e.g. money from a bank) bman: company (friendly presence) bofo: round (shape) bosko: forest bovn: doctor bt: but buab: monkey b-fa: harmful-healthy budo: cloud bufu: to have a different opinion, to disagree bukb: invertebrate buod: ice b-va: dark-bright buvo: clown bvea: oven (traditional or microwave) b-nt: boring-interesting b-ga: bad-good b-ra: rude-friendly c: I (first person singular pronoun) ca: hello cabk: to play (e.g. a video, audio) cada: caress cafau: cocoa caft: fruit juice caj: (reflexive) campo: shampoo canad: t-shirt c-ne: sweet-sour (taste) canda: short-sleeved t-shirt candu: long-sleeved t-shirt canud: hat capa: star capen: a natural body of water (e.g. river, lake, sea, ocean) casu: wish casv: dream (wish) cebe: the act of becoming cfau: to sleep cfuf: to run ckau: red cfum: mute person ckap: law (human) crao: encouraged ctao: the Sun ctem: to fall ctuk: door lock cubv: (music) track cucd: animal (excluding humans) cumb: fish cumd: mammal cumk: insect cund: day (bright part of the 24 hours) cvad: soft (in a tactile way) cvau: surgeon cvea: relaxation cvub: immortal cvuv: meat cuta: cat cuxo: to be awake cvab: mortal (one who can die) dabn: dawn, dusk dafa: to teach dajp: petal daka: present, gift dakt: tomorrow dapta: treeless land due to the cold summers, tundra davo: arm decu: cherry demc: end of the world, doomsday dena: to ignore desko: disco dnau: underwear doer: creativity doku: heartbeat dopo: dawn, sunrise dorbo: thief duga: to turn off (an electronic device) dvan: bittersweet (taste) d-sm: dumb-smart fabeb: to imitate faec: bald faed: glasses (things you put on your eyes) faem: hair (on your scalp) faoc: natural disaster (fire, earthquake, tornado etc.) fafu: life fnau: fetish fapt: exotic fasn: to miss (feel the lack of something you previously had) faub: to feel (in a tactile way) fauk: to have a smell faud: to look (like) fauf: to sound (like) faug: to taste (like) faz: always the same (see "a couple ambiguous sentences") fbab: feeling (touch), to feel fbac: smell (sense), to smell fbaca: actively smelling something fbacu: passively smelling something fbad: to see, to watch fbada: to watch fbadu: to see fbaf: to hear, listen fbafa: to listen fbafu: to hear fbag: to taste fcem: blind fpuk: flu (disease) feda: the future part of today foba: gun ford: chair, armchair, couch gog: same sex fram: water frob: enemy ftom: deaf fua: affirmative or negative marker fuba: ceiling fubad: rifle fubk: self-esteem fucb: firearm fucd: cold weapon fuoca: flood fuoce: earthquake fuoco: fire (natural disaster) fufk: floor (the bottom of a room) fuz: variable (see "a couple ambiguous sentences") f-st: slow-fast kabak: government kaca: to cause kaba: to give (as a present) kabe: to give kabo: to lend kadk: stone kadv: to slap (someone) kaen: to spend an entire night awake kama: fridge kamb: peach (fruit) kamc: wool kana: thanks kanada: Canada kapr: thorn kapt: granite (rock) kask: to cancel kasp: taste (preference) katek: to softly pat someone's back in sign of comfort kave: snow kavm: goal (something to reach) kaxe: from a lower elevation to a higher elevation, upwards kebab: kebab koze: turns words like "human" into "humankind" kbac: goat kbad: to turn off (an electronic device) kbao: glass (substance) kbaz: criticism kbem: bread kbuz: armchair kcum: heart (organ) kej: here keck: school keun: to follow (physically) kevk: house kmub: onion koba: to get (receive) koek: heart (figuratively) kofe: coffee komb: climate kompu: computer kona: language kondo: air conditioning konu: to follow (on a social network) kopa: thirst kope: idea (as a solution to a problem) kopu: cutlery koun: to follow (a lifestyle, philosophy) krec: Christmas krev: grass ktau: yesterday ktem: can (there is a possibility that...) kuak: duck kub: style (see "in a certain style") kubz: horse kuda: heating (stove, fireplace, radiator, etc.) kudab: stove kudac: fireplace kudak: radiator kukox: river kurk: pickled kuruk: wolf kvor: blood kxax: mosquito kx-m: person who knows very little-person who knows a lot kxen: flat (not the building) jece: dog kxau: loud k-ta: cold-hot mabek: philosophy (subject) j: you jaka: door jaya: hunger rasu: food jemr: to get lost (somewhere) jnoa: word jopa: butt, ass gab: sometimes gack: to punch (someone) gaja: ridiculizing laughter gama: to fly (can both mean as an animal and in an airplane) gamu: law (e.g. math, physics) gana: to fly (as an animal) gank: poison, venom gansa: to fly (in an airplane) garok: slavery gava: foot gave: to discover, discovery gauv: electricity geam: closet, wardrobe gema: pomegranate geudo: gravel goba: couch (furniture) goxa: rice (food) goso: funny graj: overcast (weather) gruk: to be able to, to manage to (do something) guag: ocean guca: Internet guga: lake guog: butterflies in your stomach (emotion) gura: tickle guza: to wish (e.g. good luck) gn: generalization marker m: emotion or tone of voice mam: parent maub: tropical mauk: volume (space) maug: cancer (disease) meba: middle ages mena: everywhere mevu: friendly laughter mope: drug (street drugs or psychiatric medications) mora: world (as in "my world" when referring to things you like) muka: face mukb: microscope musa: oil (food) nag-: wrong-right (not in a moral sense) nta: (metaphor) na: female nab: to drink (doesn't necessarily imply alcohol) nak: to eat nan: grandparent nana: grandparent (mother's parent) nano: grandparent (father's parent) nao: meow n-st: ugly-beautiful (aesthetically only) u: negative marker zev: male or female nave: ant nema: to cry ndae: to interact nt-n: strict-permissive nukd: sand obgu: to agree ofsa: son, daughter okae: bottle ok-m: unstable-stable ogob: to turn on (an electronic device) onda: book zrau: fork opto: question orur: to lose (the possession of something, e.g. someone stole something from the speaker, or someone died) osen: autumn osur: to scream in pain otup: to open (something) ovab: helicopter ovub: airplane oxam: volume (sound) ozka: to guess paba: plate paga: prince, princess paje: to understand pak: pure panap: glass (drinking vessel) panda: panda pcuc: excrement peda: the past part of today pamp: pun parb: building pata: bed paxp: pig pebuc: peluche pend: sheep pengu: penguin pent: pillow pobak: polar prasn: explosion poda: weather poru: to win (in a game) poste: kiss puano: piano (musical instrument) puc-: fear-courage puka: to slam (e.g. a door) pura: plastic purs: to build puvde: lapidation overkraft: hovercraft ovov: eye ovto: answer pasta: pasta p-f: past-future raen: online renok: eel renuk: earwax foar: dusk, sunset nanj: tired (e.g. after a hard work) raop: time (occurrence of an event) ras: one raunu: lion raxo: lamp rbao: island rcao: philosophy (lifestyle) rend: apple reda: ambiguity repa: kindness retc: to suggest retom: summer rejd: rain rkao: finger rod: (turns a cardinal number into an ordinal number) roda: sky rojdu: to lock (e.g. a door) rondon: London ronme: track (not in a musical sense) rotva: rottweiler (dog breed) rupa: inside of a building zoge: sexual orientation, to be sexually attracted (by) runa: the Moon rurb: to lose (not finding something anymore) rung: to feel (emotion, feeling) (i.e. hunger, happiness, pain etc.) sact: cigarette sasa: stair sase: to run (e.g. a code, an app, a program, a game) saxa: sugar sbak: boot (clothing) sbek: elevator sboc: sock scoka: soccer kamera: camera serc: massage serus: lemon seto: to knock skaba: mould skad: free (that which costs no money) skap: to burn skazu: story, movie, videogame skuam: to swim on the beach skud: not free (that which costs money) smau: valley smav: smartphone stum: dance sned: to succeed snod: disappointment sono: spider soza: sci-fi sozur: social network srasa: page (of a book) srase: page (of the Internet) stat: status (social network) subtu: candy s-ka: dirty-clean s-zu: difficult-easy (see "difficult and easy") sutu: fishing sera: to sell saz: (see "it's cold, according to whom?") sez: (see "it's cold, according to whom?") soz: (see "it's cold, according to whom?") smok: to smoke (cigarettes) sord: sword spu: metaphorical insult spub: metaphorical angry insult spuc: metaphorical playful insult sra: (sarcasm) suba: to be (weather) sucu: sushi skane: (idiom.) happy new year! smur: to yell angrily sn: singular marker sna: compliment sne: non-offending snu: offending, insult snub: angry insult snuc: playful insult soe: interrogative dummy word (see "interrogative dummy word") stu: generic insult (true or false) stub: generic angry insult stuc: generic playful insult tazb: day (period of 24 hours) tbau: pants, trousers teda: today tcop: planet tcot: stick, cane tcuba: chihuahua (dog breed) tcuda: objective (camera) tcus: good night (the listener is going to sleep) tebe: chair tedab: dictionary tkek: religion toxu: to write tsou: smartphone, tablet, computer tsuk: urine tukac: key tupa: to kick tupo: fire (not in the sense of natural disaster) tustu: toast (food) t-pa: lack of empathy-empathy tuvu: television terja: cotton ubugo: telescope ucuc: vinegar uf-f: mean-sweet (personality) uodo: synaesthesia uof: to bark uofa: calcium (mineral) ur-d: imprecise-precise usa: united states of america utb-: unacceptable-acceptable uvak: analyze, analysis uxum: mathematics vaub: nostalgia vebe: random v-nd: unnecessary-necessary vec: full (of) veta: vocabulary (amount of words a person knows) vkuk: sharp vrac: restaurant v-zp: morally wrong-right top: (topic marker) t-st: dirty-clean xama: hallucination xame: war z-ca: sadness-happiness, sad-happy vado: hand vafo: dream (actual dream, not wish) van: (unspecified value) xao: (experienced event) xeu: (hearsay evidentiality) dop: (inference) zud: every zuf: (speculation) cta: different sex pn: plural marker re: he/she/it tapa: to talk, to speak tavb: salt tben: train (mean of transport) tcoko: chocolate ub: interrogative marker (the speaker hopes for a negative answer) urub: smile un: noun suffix vaba: boat veka: to rotate, rotation vesna: spring vu: male vubc: ship vabe: night (dark part of the 24 hours) v-fe: pain-pleasure v-ve: annoyance-pleasure v-ze: (can mean "v-fe" or "v-ve") v-ma: rude-sweet (personality) vcux: weapon vems: a place for activities (hotel, park, hospital, restaurant, school etc.) voru: to lose (in a game) xamu: to hit with a car xejo: egg xeko: non-consensual xoka: thunderstorm (weather) xopo: loneliness (not necessarily invoking a negative feeling) xrok: to destroy xt-k: weak-strong (physically) xtet: cake x-ke: non violence-violence x-ta: cold-friendly (personality) xrau: heart (organ) xumo: to cook x-ka: calm-anger xuxo: death yomo: to read cate: day (period of time from 00:00:00 to 23:59:59) zamp: to jump zeje: wind zezo: fly (insect) zgab: head zb-f: slim-fat zm-b: small-big zvon: to call (by phone) pajb: walk y-do: young-old ab-n: relationship refusal/romantic love abku: to ruin, make unpleasant baru: to bring cebe: to become cm: comitative preposition d: (connects an operand to an operator) dac: that (see "the first time") dan: (connects a subject do a passive verb) fcao: to feed k: (usually connects a noun to an adjective) kak: "like" (A does something, B does that as well) kek: "like" (A does something in the same manner as B) kok: "like" (A does something in the same intensity as B) kuk: "like" (A does something in the same manner and intensity as B) m: (introduces an emotion or tone of voice) narb: to stop (doing something) ndae: to interact with ns: instrumental preposition r: (connects an operator to an operand) rag: therefore rer: can mean "rag" or "rok" rok: if A, then B de: possessive (similar to 's in English) deb: non-creative possessive (see "my book") dek: (creative possessive) (see "my book") dez: (an unlikely possessive) (see "my hand") v: vocative v-r: hate-love (non-romantic) yaku: translate, translation z: (introduces time) zada: sexual arousal zeu: (relative pronoun) zduba: to surf (the web) zmau: winter zrau: desert (biome) zvuk: sound, noise z-de: difficult-easy (see "difficult and easy") z-ka: safe-dangerous z-je: vulgar-honorific ge: copula